"Kartvelian Heritage" is the electronic copy of the annual scientific publication "Kartvelian Heritage" (ISSN 1512-09-53) of Tariel Putkaradze Kartvelology Scientific-Research Center at the Faculty of Humanities at Akaki Tsereteli State University (Kutaisi, Georgia). The proceedings of the international symposia "Kutaisi Discussions" organised by the Scientific-Research Center of Kartvelology, reviewed research papers in Kartvelology (linguistics, literary studies, folklore, historiography, culture studies, ethnology, etc.) and the texts of Kartvelian dialects obtained by the staff of the Centre are published in this journal. Journal DOI: https://doi.org/10.52340/PUTK E-ISSN: 2960-9186 P-ISSN: 1512-0953
ALEKSANDRE (SHO PLAY SHIA) CHKHAIDZE’S DESCENDANTS
Aleksandre (Shoshia) Chkhaidze made a significant contribution to the development of the history of Georgian drama with his play Descendants. Through dramaturgy, he introduced fundamental changes in the process of formation and development of Georgian thought and worldview. The author’s work, which is rather real-life and based on justice, has never faded and, we believe, it will never fade. His heart was full of love for people, doing good and performing good deeds. Regardless of the political or economic background in the Soviet Union, the playwright was still not afraid of the demands on the part of high officials and continued his work tirelessly. Aleksandre Chkhaidze never betrayed his life calling or high civic or moral positions; especially when every word had to be measured, acceptable and desirable for the interests of others. He broke every stereotype prevailing in society and continued his creative activity beyond the accepted rules and frameworks. Through the characters in Descendants, Aleksandre Chkhaidze thoroughly presented the era, clearly depicting his own subjective or objective life position and every critical opinion.
ON THE ISSUE OF COMMON ROOTS AND STEMS IN SVAN AND MEGRELIAN-LAZ. IV.
Etymological works offer analysis of a considerable number of interesting lexical materials. At the same time, some of the correspondences are either inaccurate or, quite frequently, incomplete. Those who consider Svan, Megrelian, and Laz idioms as independent language systems, indicate the possibility of borrowings of lexical units between them. However, the above-mentioned idioms do not transcend beyond the scope of one system, they are rather different idioms of one language system. Therefore, the theory of borrowing lexemes (roots and stems) within the same system is unacceptable. It is possible to discuss the common material, but when certain roots do not occur in any of the idioms, it does not mean that the very root did not exist in a given idiom. That being said, a common root in any of the idioms may undergo semantic changes and move away from the original meaning. For instance, the Megrelian birguli („მუხლი” a knee) is employed to indicate wrestling in Svan: ḥebergyel ([he] is wrestling [with someone]: ebirguleba). There are also other lexical units that incorporate common roots and stems in Megrelian, Laz and Svan. From this perspective, the idioms that have preserved many interesting word forms are of particular interest.
Copyright (c) 2026 Authors Retain All Rights. The Journal Retains the Right of the First Publication
PHONETIC PECULIARITIES FOUND IN THE ACHARAN SPEECH OF THE KARTVELIAN-SPEAKING MUHAJIRS’ DESCENDANTS LIVING IN DÜZCE İLI (THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY)
სტატიაში მიმოხილულია თურქეთის რესპუბლიკის დუზჯეს ილში მოსახლე ქართველურენოვან მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლების მეტყველება – ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტის ერთ-ერთი ნაირსახეობა. სამხრეთ-დასავლეთი საქართველოს კუთხეებიდან: აჭარა-მაჭახლიდან და ნიგალიდან წასული მუჰაჯირები დუზჯეს ილის ტერიტორიაზე XIX საუკუნის 80-იანი წლების დასაწყისიდან დასახლდნენ. დღემდე, მათი შთამომავლები ცხოვრობენ ძირითადად სოფლად. უფროსი თაობა მეტნაკლებად ინარჩუნებს მშობლიურ ენასა და ზნე-ჩვეულებებს, უმცროს თაობაში კი უკვე შესამჩნევია ასიმილაციის შედეგები. შესაბამისად, ქართული ენის აჭარული დიალექტი დუზჯეში გაქრობის პირასაა – მასზე დიდ გავლენას ახდენს როგორც თურქული (რომელიც ქართველურენოვან მუჰაჯირთათვის ოფიციალური და სხვებთან საურთიერთო ენაა), ისე – თანამედროვე სამწიგნობრო ქართული ენაც (რომელსაც გასული საუკუნის 90-იანი წლების ბოლოდან იქაური ქართველები აქტიურად შეისწავლიან). სწორედ ამიტომაც ძალიან მნიშვნელოვანია დუზჯეს ილისთვის დამახასიათებელი აჭარული დიალექტის შესწავლა. მასობრივი ორენოვნების შედეგად, დუზჯეში დასტურდება ქართულ-თურქულ სამეტყველო კოდთა აღრევაც (Code-switching). აქვე უნდა აღინიშნოს ისიც, რომ დიალექტური მეტყველება უმეტესად დამახასიათებელია 40 წელზე უფროსი თაობისთვის. იმავდროულად, ქართულის კარგად მცოდნენი 40 წელზე უმცროს თაობაშიც საკმაოდ გვხვდებიან, თუმცა ისინი მეტყველებენ სამწიგნობრო ენაზე (ქართული სამწიგნობრო ენის კურსები დუზჯეში გასული საუკუნის 90-იანი წლებიდან არსებობს).დუზჯეს აჭარული მეტყველება უნდა დაიყოს ორ – საკუთრივ აჭარულ და ზეგნურ კილოკავებად. დაყოფა ეფუძნება ერთ ღირსსაცნობ ფაქტს – მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლები ორ ჯგუფად იყოფიან: ერთნი – ამჟამინდელი ქედის მუნიციპალიტეტიდან წამოსულები – თავს თვლიან უშუალოდ აჭარლებად, მეორენი – შუახევისა და ხულოს სოფლებიდან წამოსულები – ზეგნელებად. ამგვარი დაყოფის საფუძველი ქედის აჭარლების დამოკიდებულებაა: დღესაც კი, ამჟამინდელ აჭარის ავტონომიურ რესპუბლიკაში მცხოვრები ქედელები შუახევისა და ხულოს მკვიდრთ ზეგნის აჭარლებს (= მთის აჭარლებს) უწოდებენ. როგორც ჩანს, 140-წლიანი იზოლაციის პირობებში, ოსმალეთში მცხოვრებ მუჰაჯირებში მკვეთრად გაიმიჯნა მთის აჭარლებისა და ტაფობის აჭარლების თვითაღქმა. სტატია დამუშავებულია 2021 წლის გაზაფხულსა და ზაფხულში უშუალოდ დუზჯეს ილში ჩაწერილი მასალების საფუძველზე.
GIORGI ZHURULI AND HIS DESCENDANTS IN FRANCE
Durmishkhan Zhuruli and his wife Ketevan Namoradze had four children. Two of their sons, Luka and Andria, died at a young age. Nino Zhuruli was the wife of the famous military figure - Lieutenant General Ilia Makarashvili, and Giorgi Zhuruli (Durmishkhan’s son) was the Minister of Trade, Industry and Finance of the Independent Republic of Georgia. Durmishkhan Zhuruli had a great desire for his son to have a military career, but Giorgi’s heart was not inclined to military work. After graduating from the Cadet Corps in 1886, he refused to enter the school for military officers. With the support of his parents, Giorgi Zhuruli left for Europe, namely, to Paris, to study agronomy at the Mining Institute. After that, he continued his studies at the Petrovsko Razumovsky Academy in Moscow. During 1897-1903, Giorgi Zhuruli was a censor in the Caucasus Censorship Committee. Then, he worked in the ministry of Agriculture for three years. Giorgi Zhuruli had a close relationship with Ilia Chavchavadze. Giorgi Zhuruli worked in the self-governments of Batumi and, later, Tbilisi. He was the acting head of the city of Batumi during 1910-1913. Member of the Tbilisi City Council, member of the board, as well as chairman of the Finance Commission. As a real member, he was actively involved in the activities of the Society for the Spreading Literacy Among Georgians. In 1908-1910, he headed the Batumi branch of the board of the mentioned society. In 1917, he was part of the Council of Nationalities established with Ozakom. He was a member of the founding society of the Georgian University, as well as a member of the Georgian National Interparty Council. In May 1918, as an adviser to the Transcaucasian delegation, he participated in the Batumi Armistice Conference. He was invited as an expert who discussed the importance of maintaining Georgian control over Batumi. On May 26, 1918, during the period of the restoration of Georgia’s state independence and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Giorgi Zhuruli was appointed to the position of Minister of Finance and Trade-Industry. He was holding this position until March 1919 when the founding assembly of Georgia recruited the government with the representative of the Social Democrats, who had won the elections. Its facsimile is recorded on the denominations of one-year treasury (5%) bonds of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which were issued in January 1919 to collect cash from the population. Since 1919, he headed the Tchiatura Black Stone Industrialists’ Council, which funded a number of cultural projects in the country. In 1919-1920, Zhuruli headed the representative office of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which negotiated with the command of the allied army stationed in Batumi. After the occupation of independent Georgia by Soviet Russia, on March 18, 1921, Giorgi Zhuruli went abroad from Batumi together with the Georgian government and finally settled in Europe. Giorgi Zhuruli and Elene Muskhelishvili had only two sons - Konstantine and Durmishkhan Zhuruli, who have never cut ties with Georgia. This is confirmed by Konstantine’s letter to his aunt Nino Zhuruli and cousin Irina Makarashvili which was sent from The Hague in 1925. He expressed great emotion because of missing Arbo, his native village, and asked his family members living in Georgia to send photos. Konstantine died in 1947, without leaving any heir. Giorgi Zhuruli’s second son Durmishkhan was in poor health and underwent several operations. He died in 1987 after a long illness. Durmishkhan Zhuruli was married to Hugete (1916-2003), with whom he had a daughter Catherine (1948). Named after her grandmother (Ketevan Namoradze-Zhuruli), Catherine married Patrick Desbo (born in 1947). Catherine and Patrick have two sons – Cedric (born in 1974) and Louis (born in 1977). Cedric was in his first marriage with Laura (born in 1974), with whom he had two children: Valentin and Timothy. And his second wife is Helen (born in 1981), with whom Cedric has one son, Clement, born in 2019. Cedric’s brother Louis (born in 1977) is married to Audrey (born in 1982). They have four children: Logan, Manon, Nathan, and Thea. Cedric chose history as a profession. He graduated from Sorbonne University. At the end of the 1990s, Cedric Desbo traveled to Georgia with his parents, he also visited Zhuruli’s native village of Arbo. The historical house on the verge of demolition, where the families of Zhuruli and Makarashvili lived, was captured in his photo.
LINGUISTIC PECULIARITIES OF THE FOLKLORE OF THE KARTVELIAN-SPEAKING MUHAJIRS LIVING IN THE DÜZCE-SAKARYA REGION OF TURKEY
თურქეთის დუზჯესა და საქარიის ილებში მცხოვრები ქართველები ისტორიული სამხრეთ-დასავლეთი საქართველოდან რუსეთ-ოსმალეთის 1877-1878 წლების ომის შედეგად ოსმალეთში გადასახლებული მუჰაჯირების შთამომავლები არიან. მათ დიდ ნაწილს დღემდე ქართული თვითშეგნება აქვს, თუმცა ქართულად საუბარი უჭირს. მშობლიურ – ქართულ ენას ინარჩუნებს მხოლოდ საშუალო და უფროსი თაობა. ქართველ მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლები გასული საუკუნის 60-იანი წლებიდან ფართოდ ინტეგრირდებიან თურქეთის რესპუბლიკის საზოგადოებრიობაში, რის შედეგადაც ყოველი მომდევნო თაობა წინაზე უფრო უკეთ ფლობს სახელმწიფო – თურქულ ენას და თანდათან ივიწყებს ქართულს (დიალექტურ მეტყველებას), რომელიც, მართალია, მათთვის წინაპრების მემკვიდრეობაა, მაგრამ ნაკლებად პრესტიჟულია. გასული საუკუნის 90-იანი წლებიდან მოყოლებული, როცა თურქეთსაქართველოს საზღვარი გაიხსნა, თურქეთის ქართველები დიდად დაინტერესდნენ ქართული ენითა და კულტურით. ქართველებით დასახლებულ ადგილებში ჩამოყალიბდა ენის შემსწავლელი წრეები, კულტურის ცენტრები და ა.შ. ენასთან ერთად თურქეთის ქართველებმა დაიწყეს ქართული ფოლკლორის შესწავლა, დაინტერესდნენ ქართული ცეკვებითაც. ეს, რასაკვირველია, მისასალმებელ მოვლენას წარმოადგენდა, თუმცაღა საქმე ის იყო, რომ ისინი, ძირითადად, ინტერესდებოდნენ სამწიგნობრო ქართული ენით და ზოგადქართული კულტურით, ხოლო უშუალო წინაპრების მემკვიდრეობა – ქართული დიალექტური მეტყველება და ფოლკლორი – თითქმის შეუსწავლელი რჩებოდა. 1992 წელს საქართველოში გამოიცა პროფ. შუშანა ფუტკარაძის ფუნდამენტური ნაშრომი „ჩვენებურების ქართული“ (წიგნი პირველი), რომელიც შეიცავდა როგორც ქართველ მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლების, ისე – თურქეთის ავტოქთონ ქართველთა მეტყველების ნიმუშებს. ამ ნიმუშთა მნიშვნელოვან ნაწილს სწორედ ფოლკლორული ტექსტები შეადგენდა. თურქეთის ქართველობის ფოლკლორის ნიმუშები შემდგომში ზოგმა სხვა მკვლევარმაც გამოაქვეყნა, თუმცაღა თითქმის არავის უკვლევია მათი ენობრივი თავისებურებანი. არადა, რამდენადაც თურქეთში დღემდე შემორჩენილი ქართველური მემკვიდრეობა ნელ-ნელა გაქრობის გზას ადგას, საშურია ამგვარი კვლევის ჩატარება. აქვე დავძენთ იმასაც, რომ სახელდობრ ქართველ მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლების ფოლკლორი საინტერესოა ქართველურ-თურქულ სამეტყველო კოდთა შერევის თვალსაზრისითაც. სტატია დამუშავებულია 2021 წლის გაზაფხულსა და ზაფხულში უშუალოდ დუზჯესა და საქარიის ილებში ჩვენ მიერ ჩაწერილი მასალების საფუძველზე.
Copyright (c) 2026 ყველა უფლება ეკუთვნით ავტორებს. ჟურნალი იტოვებს მხოლოდ პირველადი გამოქვეყნების უფლებას. Authors Retain All Rights. The Journal Retains the Right of the First Publication
MODELS OF NOUN-VERB HOMONYMS IN GEORGIAN
ომონიმიასთან დაკავშირებით არსებობს ორი მცდარი შეხედულება. ლინგვისტთა ნაწილი ომონიმიას ენის ხარვეზად მიიჩნევს, ნაწილი კი მას შემთხვევით მოვლენად აღიქვამს. აღნიშნულ მოსაზრებებს ეწინააღმდეგება წინამდებარე ნაშრომში განხილული ენობრივი მოვლენა, კერძოდ, სახელებსა და ზმნებს შორის არსებული ომონიმების მოდელები. ომონიმური მოდელი გულისხმობს არა ცალკეულ სიტყვებს, არამედ მორფოლოგიურ/დერივაციულ კონსტრუქციებს შორის ომონიმიას, რაც განაპირობებს ასეთი ომონიმების სისტემატურობას, რეგულარულობას. მაგალითად, STEM-PL(eb)-DAT(s) კონსტრუქციის სახელები და STEMTHEM(eb)-3.SG(s) კონსტრუქციის ზმნები. ორივე იწარმოება ბურდღუნი ტიპის მოქმედების სახელებისგან და ერთმანეთის ომონიმურები არიან. ჩვენ ქართულში გამოვავლინეთ ამ ტიპის 115 ომონიმური მოდელი. ომონიმები რომ ენის ფუნქციონირებას ხელს უშლიდეს, ისინი არ იქნებოდნენ ენის სისტემაში ასეთი სახით წარმოდგენილი და იქნებოდნენ არარეგულარული და არასისტემური.
POETIC REFLECTION OF WORLD FATE BY GRIGOL BAGRATIONI
The poetic work of Grigol Bagrationi (1789-1830) (one of the representatives of Georgian emigrant literature at the turn of the 18th-19th c.) is interesting primarily in terms of understanding the national problem. He was the son of Ioane (the son of the last king of Kartli-Kakheti - George XII), a famous writer and encyclopedist. Due to his active participation in the 1812 uprising against the Russian colonial regime, G. Bagrationi was deported to Russia to serve his sentence. From that time on, he spent his entire life in exile. His poetic creativity is accompanied by a nostalgia for forced separation from his homeland. Grigol Bagrationi mainly focused on the national problem. Apart from his lyrical poems, he also wrote epic works in regard to the above-mentioned theme. In this respect, his “Kartlis Tskhovreba” (written in a poetic form) is especially interesting. Those phraseological syntagmas and elements of tropes are of interest that are widely used in the poetic texts by Grigol Bagrationi, which actually provide a certain basis for emphasizing the affinity between the poetic legacy of Gr. Bagrationi and that of the Georgian Romanticists. His poetry is also diverse in terms of versification. The author employs the metric patterns that are widely established in the works of his predecessors as well as his contemporary Georgian poets.
POETIC WORLD OF DAVID MACHABELI (WITNESS OF 1832 EVENTS AND PARTICIPANT OF CONSPIRACY FROM TAMARASHENI)
It is impossible to start a conversation about the literary and cultural traditions of Tskhinvali’s region, without mentioning the names of local residents, the Machabelis. Many of them brought fame to their region and promoted already rich and varied traditions of literature. When exploring the creative traditions of an occupied Tskhinvali region, surely, the first who comes to mind is Ivane Machabeli, a journalist, editor, and unique translator of Shakespeare’s plays and poems. furthermore, in different periods of time, interesting and efficient works were accomplished by David (the son of Bardzimi Machabeli), Luarsab Machabeli, Svimon Machabeli, Vasil Machabeli, and so on. Along with others, from the second half of the 19th century, Alexandre, the son of David Machabeli had done interesting works. This time, while discussing literary and cultural areas of the Tskhinvali Region, our attention is focused on David, the son of Bardzim Machabeli, and on his greatest accomplishments and his poetic world. He was born in Tamarasheni village in 1814. After being homeschooled at an elementary level, his parents enrolled him in the Tbilisi Gymnasium. Then, the Georgian press indicated his success as a student and the fact, that he was chosen as the best student at the school for nobles. (Tiflisi’s Vedomosti 1829: 1) While studying in the gymnasium, David Machabeli became friends with Nikoloz Baratashvili and Mikheil Tumanishvili. During his studies in the gymnasium, he as a student of Solomon Dodashvili (a famous public figure of the first half of the 19th century), lived in an apartment owned by Efrem Aleksi-Meskhishvili. In 1834, after finishing his studies at the gymnasium, David Machabeli started a job as a simple servant of the Tbilisi government. He also tried his luck in the military service, however, in 1839, due to his father’s death, he returned to his native village Tamarasheni. He had a troubled marriage with Svimon Tsereteli’s daughter, Elisabed. From this marriage, David Machabeli had a son, Abesalom, who later studied and worked in Kutaisi. Sadly, soon after his marriage, the poet forever separated himself from his wife and son, and lived alone in his native village. David Machabeli’s works are extremely interesting and unique. Without any hesitation, one could say that he played a crucial role in the development of the regional cultural and literary life.
CORPUS LINGUISTIC ANALYSISOF CHRISTIAN TERMINOLOGYIN RUSSIAN TRANSLATIONSOF THE KNIGHT IN THE PANTHER’S SKIN
The Knight in the Panther’s Skin, the poem by Shota Rustaveli is one of the exceptional masterpieces of Georgian national literature. The poem has not lost its actuality and has been an object of permanent research and popularization since the period of its creation. Accordingly, the importance of our research topic is cultivated by the significance of the poem itself. With the use of modern methods, the Rustvelological research takes a much wider scope and expands the possibilities of the poem’s promotion and accessibility to the researchers interested in the subject. The popularization of The Knight in the Panther’s Skin has been significantly assisted by Russian translations, which served as a source text for the translations into other languages. Our goal is to apply the method of corpus linguistic analysis to the study of the Christian terminology identified in The Knight in the Panther’s Skin in Russian translations, namely, in complete poetic translations by Konstantin Balmont, Shalva Nutsubidze, and Archil Khalvashi. Based on empirical material, we will try to evaluate the degree of equivalence in translations, analyze the relationship between the source and the translation, as well as the translations themselves, and identify the translation principles and strategies of every translator. The conclusions formulated as a result of the research are made on the basis of the electronically processed empirical material, which significantly increases the degree of empiricality of the work. Also, the corpus linguistic analysis of the translations will contribute to the development of digital Kartvelology and, specifically, to the development of Rustvelology. Thus, we believe, the article will be beneficial to the reader interested in the topic both theoretically and practically.
Russian translations of The Knight in the Panther’s Skin
Adjara in Ivane Gomarteli’s Publicistic Letters(Based on Materials from the Monastery of Istanbul)
The article aims to highlight the travels of Ivane Gomarteli in Ajara. He visited thThe article examines the travels of Ivane Gomarteli in Adjara during the first half of the nineteenth century. He explored both Upper and Lower Adjara, documenting his impressions and reflections, which were later published in the newspaper Alioni under the title Adjara and the Adjarans (Letter I – 1917, №64; Letter II – 1917, №65; Letter III – 1917, №67; Letter IV – 1917, №68). The materials in question are currently preserved at the Georgian Catholic Monastery in Istanbul, Republic of Turkey. Through the efforts of the research team at the Niko Berdzenishvili Institute of Batumi Shota Rustaveli State University—Roin Malaqmadze, Shushana Putkaradze, and Elza Putkaradze—these letters have been included in the volume Letters from the Georgian Monastery of Istanbul, Vol. III (2024). The article addresses the historical context of the period when Adjara was already part of the Georgian homeland. Georgian writers and public figures began to visit the region, contributing significantly to its revival. In this respect, the journey of one such public figure – Ivane Gomarteli – in Adjara is particularly noteworthy. Ivane Gomarteli visited Adjara in the early twentieth century. He engaged in a detailed discussion of the problems faced by the locals and the ways to address them. At the beginning of his letter, he reflects on the historical past of this region, emphasizing Adjara’s strategic location and its role and significance. The author points out the most crucial issue: “the true mother tongue of the Adjarans, preserved both at home and in public, is Georgian.” In addition, the publicist emphasizes and addresses the matter: “the revival of Muslim Georgia and the awakening of national consciousness within it are crucially linked to the future of the Georgian nation.” In his letters, Ivane Gomarteli also discusses the socioeconomic state of this region, indicating its urgent problems and suggesting the ways to strengthen this southwestern part of Georgia. He highlights its strategic significance and reflects on its future. Considering the above, Gomarteli’s writings depict Adjara as a ‘paradise’. It was his first visit to the breathtaking Adjara, and his emotions reflect this experience. The author generously employs tropes such as metaphors, comparisons, epithets, and so on. Thus, the material presented in Gomarteli’s letters remains valuable due to both its content and details it provides.
DECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOVIET ERA IN FICTION (DATO TURASHVILI, GURAM KARTVELISHVILI)
In the last decade of the 20th century, fiction having become free from ideological pressure as a result of well-known historical events was given the opportunity to interpret the public situation undisguisedly, free of subtexts. In the post-Soviet era, it was relevant and important to represent the deconstruction of the Soviet reality and the post-colonial trauma, so that the society could go through a painful stage of self-identification necessary for its further development. Literature was supposed to influence the consciousness of a man of the Soviet era and contribute to an already painful and difficult process of re-evaluation of values. It is quite normal that the reflection on the tragic events of the Soviet period is one of the prominent trends of modern Georgian literature, as well as the personal drama caused by the failure of the Soviet ideology, which is directly related to the peculiarities of the perception and acceptance/non-acceptance of the new reality created in the post-colonial era. Many remarkable works have been created on this topic by authors of different generations and styles of writing which reflect on many aspects of the recent past. This paper analyzes two short stories: Where Do Pigeons Build Their Nests by Dato Turashvili and Caucasian Pitomnik (Nursery) by Guram Kartvelishvili. The reviewed texts clearly show that both writers participate in the process of deconstruction of the Soviet era. They use different artistic methods to create the thinking space for the reader to deeply imagine the peripeties of Soviet life, the fate of individuals in a totalitarian, violent society, and to be able to correctly perceive and reflect on the even more difficult reality resulting from the inevitable collapse of this society, which should logically lead to the understanding of the necessity of action.
PAIRED MEMBER-CONJUNCTIONS IN INNER KARTLIAN SUB-DIALECT
The analysis of the syntactic function of paired member-conjunctions presented in the article is based on the dialectal texts recorded and published in Shida Kartli at different times and on chronological comparison of the latest materials obtained by us during our village-to-village visits. In Shida Kartlian sub-dialect the complex subordinate clauses employ both subordinating conjunctions, and relative pronouns (“vints” (who, anyone who; whoever), “rats” (what, that which), “romelits” (which,, who), “rogorits” (like) and relative adverbs (“sadats” (where, in/at which), “rotsa”, “rodesats” (when, as), “rogorts” (as) that perform the function of member-conjunctions. The paired member-conjunctions are observed in Shida Kartlian sub-dialect: “vints rom”//”vints roma”//”vints ro” (who that); “rats rom”// “rats roma”// “rats ro” (what that); “romelits rom” // “romelits roma”// “romelits ro” (which that), “rogorits rom”// “rogorits roma”//“rogorits ro” (like that); “sadats rom”// “sadats roma”// “sadats ro” (where that); “rotsa rom”// “rotsa roma”//, “rotsa ro” (when that); “rodesats rom” // “rodesats roma” //“rodesats ro” (when that); “ rogorts rom” // rogorts roma” // rogorts ro” (as that). In these complex conjunctions, “that” (rom) has the function of the particle “even”. “That” (rom) strengthens the meaning of the word to which it refers. Today, the coupling of the conjunction “rom”//“roma”//“ro” (that) with relative pronouns and relative adverbs reflects a far-advanced process, compared to the published materials. Migration and analogy serve as contributing factors. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the conjunction “rom” (that) is characterized by a polysemantic function. It occurs in almost all types of subordinate clauses. By using paired member-conjunctions, the actualization occurs, the emphasis is put on a speaker, and the emotional attitude is expressed towards the very member of the main sentence to which the paired member-conjunction refers. Shida Kartlian sub-dialect manifests those common linguistic trends that are characteristic of the Georgian literary language and dialects.
TAO-KLARJETI IN ZURAB GORGILADZE’S WORKS
Tao-Klarjeti is Georgia’s biggest concern. The author, as a creative chronicler of the epoch, clearly conveys the spirit and aspirations of the nation. In his poetry, Zurab Gorgiladze as a passionate son of his country placed a special emphasis on his heartbreak. When reading the poet’s poems, we become convinced that he as a lyrical hero never abandons his country. The intensity of Zurab Gorgiladze’s passion is nurtured by the historical past of his native land. The son of Adjara feels this pain more intensely because the sadness caused by being torn from his roots is very familiar to him. The author is conscious of the hardships of his homeland, but he is worried that all he can offer is his poetic word. That is why he, as a mediator between God and man, and as a leader of the nation, uses the word as the only tool, urging the people to embrace vigilance, sensibility, and unity. The poet assures the reader that in spite of many hardships, the land of Tao-Klarjeti - “conversing with God like a vine” - will surely recover and regenerate. The paper thematically examines the lyrical heritage of the poet, which is dedicated to the theme of Tao-Klarjeti.
ROLE OF MOUNT ATHOS IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTENDOM
In the Middle Ages, a monastery was the most important political and religiouscultural center in Christendom. These spiritual sanctuaries were the flag bearers of the national culture, devoting themselves to the political and cultural life of their country. Every self-respecting state aspired to have monastic centers beyond their borders. They were a kind of iconic landmark, a representative body, the reputation of the country at an international ecclesiastical level, so the authorities tried to expand their positions in those centers. Since Egypt and Syria were no longer the centers of monastic life in the East, Constantinople (and later, Athens) acquired such a role. (K. Pavliashvili). The Sixth World Council of Constantinople in 680 established the Athos Peninsula to be inhabited by monks scattered throughout the Greek archipelago, pursuant to Articles 18 and 42. The Emperor Constantine IV Pogonatus (668-680) approved a decree of the ecumenical council, relieved the monks of their duties imposed by the patriarch and subjected them to royal authority. Since then, Mount Athos has been known as the Republic of Monks. In the 10th-11th centuries, the monastic life on Mount Athos was well organized. Monks of different nationalities worked here, namely, Greeks, Georgians, Bulgarians, Russians and Serbs. Through the work of these monks, Mount Athos has become a pillar of Christianity.
ISSUES OF PATRIOTIC AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION IN GIORGI TAVZISHVILI’S PEDAGOGICAL THOUGHT
During the study of the scholarly legacy of Giorgi Tavzishvili (1902–1963), the famous representative of Georgian pedagogical thought, special attention should be paid to his works, which essentially determine his contribution to the history of Georgian pedagogical science after a long time since they have been written. From this perspective, particularly important are those works of the researcher in which he thoroughly examined the history of Georgian education, on the one hand, and the pedagogical views of Georgian public figures, on the other. As for G. Tavzishvili’s works, which he devoted to the analysis of the principles of upbringing and teaching, they are less valuable today due to the ideological spirit of that time. The very circumstance was essentially determined by the political situation at the time. However, many acceptable opinions regarding patriotism and internationalism are expressed in the above-mentioned works. From this point of view, special attention should be paid to the fact that G. Tavzishvili assumed a role of an active defender of the national and linguistic interests of the non-Russian nations that were part of the Soviet Union during the period of total Russification policy pursued by the Soviet government.
MATERIALS ON STRUCTURE OF QUAESTIONES AD THALASSIUM BY ST. MAXIMUS THE CONFESSOR AND ITS GELATI TRANSLATION (K-14) 1 2
Quaestiones ad Thalassium ( Question to Thalassi ) is one of the most important works within the patristic legacy of St. Maximus the Confessor. The essay is of exegetical nature. In the essay, the Reverend clarifies some of the difficult passages of the Scripture. The paper is written in the form of questions and answers. Reverend Thales, who sends questions to St. Maximus, is the one who initiates the selection of texts for interpretation. There are 65 questions in total. Quaestiones ad Thalassium was first translated by St. Euthymius the Athonite. The translation by Euthymius is incomplete. It reflects only twenty-six out of sixtyf ive questions and answers. A 12th-century codex containing the works of St. Maximus the Confessor is preserved at the Kutaisi State Historical Museum. It includes twenty-four works of the Holy Father, specifically, two exegetical works, the one titled with Pyrrhus, Disputation ten dogmatic and polemical treatises, and eleven epistles. One of the two above-mentioned exegetical works is the text of the Georgian translation Quaestiones ad Thalassium. of The Gelati translation is complete. It contains sixtyf ive detailed questions and answers. The manuscript text is still unexamined and unpublished. The paper discusses the structure of the Quaestiones ad Thalassium , taking into account both the original text and its Gelati translation. The correlation between the questions has been determined, in particular, in terms of semantics or bibliology, irre spective of whether their sequence has any underlying regularity. The study has found that the first thirty-five questions are not arranged by any legitimate principles, while questions 36-65 are based on the principle of bibliological sequence, in particular, the corresponding questions and answers are always from the same book of the Bible.
Mehmed Hussein Shahriyar within the Context of Georgian Literatur
Mehmed Hussein Shahriyar (1906-1988) was an prominent figure in 20th-century Turkish and Persian literature. His works demonstrate the highest level of poetic artistry and embody the beauty of Persian poetry that spans centuries.Shahriyar's name first appeared in the Georgian literary scene in 1967, when Davit Kobidze included his poems in a Persian Chrestomathy, which included a brief note about the poet: “Shahriyar is a very popular poet in Iran. The influence of motifs from Saadi, Shiraz, and Hafez is noticeable in his poems, evoking the essence of ancient verse. Still, he possesses a unique poetic voice and vision“. Tengiz Keshelava dedicated an extensive essay to Shahriyar, where he referred to him as a unique master of ghazals. The researcher examined Shahriyar's poems in detail and classified them into three groups: 1. Classical style poems, in which the influence of classical poets is clearly discernible; 2. Romantic poems that encompass personal feelings; 3. Poems that address social themes in a realistic manner.In 1973, Magali Todua, a renowned literary figure and translator of Persian poetry, traveled to Iran on a scientific mission. When Shahryar learned of his presence, he invited the Georgian researcher to his home, leaving Magali Todua with fond memories of their meeting.Shahryar is celebrated across the Turkic world for his poem Greetings to HaydarBaba, which has been translated into 80 languages. Oktay Kazumov rendered the text from Azerbaijani into Georgian as a direct translation, which was then artistically adapted by the Georgian Iranist and poet Nomadi Bartaia. He carefully aligned the 3+2 verse structure of the original with Georgian in order to adequately convey the spirit of the poem. In 2017, the Georgian translation was published through the efforts of the Council of Azerbaijani Elders of Georgia, with support from the Ministry of Culture of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
On the Georgian Translation of Eşref Yılmaz's Poetry
Eşref Yılmaz, also known as Goderdzi Makharadze, is the president of the Association of the Georgian Culture Center in Istanbul and the author of numerous books. Among his published works are poetry collections including The Color of the Heart and The Pain of Poetic Eyes, in addition to the finest examples of Georgian poetry translated into Turkish. The article addresses the collection of poems titled Tearful Poetry by Eşref Yılmaz, translated into Georgian. Renowned poet and literary scholar Omar Gvetadze completed the translation of these works. This publication was made possible through the support and financial aid of Akaki Tsereteli State University. Unquestionably, we approached the poetic works of our compatriot with great curiosity. The translator has clearly committed himself to the task and has masterfully rendered Eşref Yılmaz’s truly remarkable artistic world into our language. Entitled Poetry with Tears, this collection effectively captures the prevalent themes of sorrow and suffering. The poetic atmosphere, musicality, and thematic complexity of the original texts are excellently preserved in the translation, allowing readers to observe, envision, and appreciate the poet's creative potential. Eşref Yılmaz's poetic works offer a wonderful blend of imagination and thought. The poet's worldview and determination gradually captivate our minds with vivid metaphors and musicality. His message and themes are more than a mere collection of dry statements. The poet's perspective, together with its artistic transformation, is distinctly unique within the context of Georgian poetic traditions. However, it is important to acknowledge that the translator has succeeded in preserving the poet’s original vision while accurately rendering the structural and aesthetic characteristics of Turkish poetry. In this article, our aim has been to explore Eşref Yılmaz’s poetic world and, through selected passages, to highlight the importance of this volume and the translator’s accomplished technique.
Nodar Dumbadze’s Short Story The Return of Odysseus: A Reflection on Georgia’s Geopolitical Situation
Nodar Dumbadze’s short story The Return of Odysseus represents a distinctly unique narrative within his literary oeuvre, yet it has been largely overlooked by literary critics. Although the story provides highly engaging and rich material related to both literature and literary history, as well as contemporary issues in Georgia's recent history, it stands as a testament to artistic-documentary collaboration. Considering its contemporary context, the writer is compelled to represent reality using ambiguous statements and passages while also leaving an "escape route" open. Consequently, this approach inevitably creates significant opportunities for misinterpretation and even conflicting interpretations of the text, which can be resolved through a thorough understanding of the work's overall context and a detailed analysis. Earlier, we examined this story in another article, emphasizing that superficial interpretations have led to opinions suggesting that the writer disparages America’s development in favor of glorifying the Soviet Union. However, simply by analyzing the text in greater depth and considering the nature of the frequently encoded segments it contains, we find that the overall picture presents a completely opposite perspective. In our opinion, The Return of Odysseus is a work written with deep sorrow, frequently evoking in the reader an ineffable sensation of regret, melancholy, or grief, especially in Georgian readers. This sorrow may stem from concerns regarding national identity in some instances, from the diminishing significance of the Georgian language and literature in others, and elsewhere it reflects a sense of regret about limitations on democratization, lost opportunities, and a sense of being left behind in time. This work can be seen as a continuation of our previously mentioned article, since the focus of our ongoing inquiry also relies on the accurate reading of ambiguous segments and phrases. Consequently, it clearly highlights the writer's understanding of Georgia's geopolitical situation under Soviet conditions and constraints.
Identity of the Descendants of Kobuletian Muhajirs (Age and Gender Aspects)
In Turkey, the descendants of Kobuletian muhajirs are the most densely settled. Their ethnic identity is dynamic and multifactorial, shaped by both cultural memory and the sociocultural environment. The research reveals the significant roles of age and gender in the preservation and transformation of culture. The materials reflect intercultural dialogues and conflicts. Instead of assimilation, the study highlights the influence of Georgian agricultural expertise on Turks, including the introduction of crops such as hazelnuts, persimmons, and potatoes. However, Turks are currently economically stronger. Gender differences are distinctly expressed in marriage customs, mourning practices, and culinary traditions. Women are the main carriers of cultural memory, particularly evident in rituals of mourning and culinary practices. Alongside Georgian dishes such as ghomi, chadi, and pkhali, as well as traditional food-related terms like malakhto, pkhal-lobio, and khachapuri, the Turkish gastronomic vocabulary—chorba, surunji, tatli, and börek—is also widely used. There are distinct differences between Georgian and Turkish cuisine, particularly in the use of ingredients such as herbs, hazelnuts, and walnuts. Typically, Georgian dishes are served at wedding feasts. The customs surrounding funerals and mourning are rooted in Islam, where the deceased are typically buried on the same day, and the bereaved refrain from wearing black. Nonetheless, Christian elements persist in certain expressions (e.g., mama gitshkhonda, mamatskhonebuli: (lit.) may your father be blessed, the blessed one// May your father rest in peace// God rest your father's soul). Saint George is also mentioned in blessings. Cultural memory is reflected in the following idiom: rusi khum ar mogdevs? Is the Russian chasing you? The older generation has a strong command of Georgian, while younger people understand the language but are unable to communicate in it. They receive their education in Turkish, which considerably weakens their role in maintaining linguistic identity relative to the older generation. The traditions of hospitality are largely preserved. Marriage traditions have transformed; intermarriage is now accepted, however, there is still a tendency for Georgian women to avoid marrying Turks. Young people are making their own choices; parental influence has weakened, the role of matchmakers is disregarded, and some older practices (such as night weddings, excessive joking, and setting the table) are almost forgotten. Identity is best preserved in culinary traditions, although the impact of religious identity is significant: wine is not served at funerals or weddings. Unlike young people, the elderly maintain both their ethnic and cultural identities, as well as traditional agricultural practices.
Ispiri District (İspir İlçe) in Turkish Wikipedia
Ispir Ilçe (district) is a part of Erzurum Province, Turkey. It lies in the headwaters of the Chorokhi River. Historically, it was a region of Georgia known as Speri. The district consists of 89 villages, according to the current official nomenclature. The central settlement, or administrative center, is the city of Ispir. Numerous settlements in Speri have been mentioned in both Georgian and foreign sources since ancient times. Nevertheless, it can be stated that this area remains relatively under-researched compared to other regions of the Chorokhi basin. As part of the comprehensive research process, there is a natural interest in digital information sources. This paper primarily relies on data from Turkish Wikipedia, along with various other sources and scientific literature, as well as field materials collected over the years during expeditions in the Chorokhi basin. The Turkish-language section of Wikipedia has existed since 2002. It contains a wealth of information about the country in general and the settlements of the Chorokhi basin in particular. Each village has its own dedicated page, which adheres to a standard format that includes details about the village’s history and location. Maps and population statistics are also provided, along with the article’s editing history and a list of sources and literature that have been referenced. The historical chronicle presents information about the ancient name of the village, occasionally clarifying the meaning of the root word. Based on the historical Ottoman census records—mainly from 1642 and 1835, and at times referring to the 1896 census or others—the number of households in ancient times is documented by religious affiliation. Over the years, a consistent informational framework and general standard have been established; however, there are instances where this standard is overlooked, resulting in a broader and more engaging presentation of information. The editing of articles and the relationship between subjective and objective layers of information can also be discussed.
"Where Troy Once Was" (Ovid. "Heroids". 1.1.53)
In ancient times, no one argued that in the Iliad and the Odyssey Homer recounted nothing more than invented stories. Yet in the nineteenth century, on 5 August 1873, the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann announced the discovery of Troy on the territory of modern-day Turkey, an event that overturned many long-held views in Homeric scholarship. The possibility emerged that, if Troy had indeed existed, Homer’s epic poetry might, at least in part, preserve memories of real events. This idea gained further support nearly forty years ago with the expedition led by the English researcher Tim Severin, who retraced the route that Odysseus is said, in Homer’s account, to have followed from Troy to his native Ithaca. Severin’s findings revealed numerous striking correspondences with the Homeric poems, thereby contributing to the emergence of an entire subfield now known as Homeric archaeology. This article explores how Homer and Troy—long regarded as the first literary monument of ancient Greek civilization and a key component of Europe’s collective identity—became part of Turkey’s cultural memory. It also considers how, consequently, both the Turkish government and the public view the preservation of this heritage as a shared responsibility, making it unsurprising that the site often hosts more local visitors than foreign tourists. The study also explores the ways in which the history of European culture, embodied in Homer’s legacy, informs and inspires Turkish cultural traditions; the function of Homeric epic in relation to the Ottoman Empire; the prospects for archaeological research and the preservation of Troy’s cultural heritage in Turkey; and the regulatory framework established in the early twentieth century to facilitate continued research at the site. Consideration will also be given to Turkish translations of the Iliad, among other issues. It is especially noteworthy that in the Iliad, Homer names the Halizones from the land of Alybe among the allies of Troy—peoples whom ancient authors already associated with one of the Kartvelian tribes—the Chalybes. Priam, in his conversation with Helen, likewise recalls the Colchian warrior women, the Amazons, whose support had earned him many victories in the past. From these references we may assert with confidence that the Kartvelian world, to some extent, entered Homer's conceptual horizon. In this sense, Homer stands as the earliest European author to provide information about ancient Colchis within the wider context of the Mycenaean age and the Trojan War.
Lullaby poems and songs and their performance tradition have been preserved until recently in Speri, one of Georgia’s oldest regions, which has been isolated from Georgia for centuries. In 1578, the Ottoman Empire finally annexed it, and unfortunately, the Georgian language has not been heard there for centuries. Despite historical adversities, the Georgian folk lullaby Nana / Nanina can still be heard in Speri—the historical territory of the Bagrationi dynasty. The lyrics of this lullaby feature the local lexeme Nini / Ninini, which stems from the name of the widely recognized Georgian and Caucasian goddess, Nana. The Sperian Nini / Ninini closely resembles the Georgian Nana lullabies, particularly the versions of lullaby poems and songs prevalent in the southwestern regions of Georgia. This indicates that the genetic code of national traditions and identity is deeply ingrained in the historical memory of the Sperians, manifesting itself in lullaby poems and songs along with other folklore genres. In the villages of Speri, we collected numerous lullaby poems and songs, recording them both in written form and in audio and video formats, performed by women—mothers and grandmothers—with the same emotional depth as in Georgian lullabies: the people of Speri gently comfort their children, creating a warm and cozy space for sleep. The Sperian lullaby poems and songs share similarities with the general Georgian Nanas both lexically and in terms of content, as well as in mood and character. Both preserve nuances of the ancient worldview as well as household and economic realities. This is clearly illustrated in the texts of these poems and songs, which include examples of “chasing away” animals or birds, such as the Megrelian Sisa Tura and the traditional lullabies from other regions of Georgia. In the Sperian Nininis, rhythmic repetitions are frequent, which is particularly characteristic of Georgian lullaby poems and songs. This clearly reflects a tendency in these texts toward a lexical principle – rhyming. Thus, even with the enduring silence in the Georgian language over the centuries, the historical memory of the population of Speri – an ancient region of Georgia – has nevertheless preserved numerous nuances of oral tradition and the genetic memory of ethnographic life. Among these, we should naturally mention lullaby poems and songs.
Contemporary Studies on Georgian History in Turkey
The first scholarly studies on the history of Georgia in Turkey began in the mid-20th century. The early works mainly offered descriptive information about the interactions between Georgia and the Ottoman Empire, as well as the history and culture of the Georgian people. Following the restoration of Georgia's independence and the establishment of diplomatic relations with Turkey, there was a growing interest in Georgian history in Turkey. This led to a significant increase in scholarly work on the history of Georgia. Numerous monographs and both scientific and journalistic articles were published. It is important to note that the works of Turkish historians frequently employ previously unknown archival documents pertaining to Georgia’s medieval, modern, and contemporary history, thereby enriching the sources available for understanding Georgian-Turkish relations and Georgian history. Although some authors’ opinions may not align with the established traditions of Georgian historiography, this does not hinder constructive debates and collaboration between Georgian and Turkish historians. In the relatively few works published in Turkish by Georgian authors in Turkey, aside from topics concerning the history of Georgia, there is a focus on specific issues related to Georgian-Turkish relations, such as the interactions of Georgians with the Huns, Khazars, and Kipchaks, as well as the Georgian-Turkish relations during the period of the Democratic Republic of Georgia and matters related to Turkey that were covered in the Georgian press. This article briefly reviews the available works of Turkish authors published from the 1950s to 2025, alongside the books and monographs published by Georgian authors in Turkish and Georgian languages.
Niko Marr and Tao-Klarjeti: Insights into the Region and Its Churches and Monasteries
The paper examines the long history of Georgian-Turkish relations, as well as the material and cultural heritage of Tao-Klarjeti and southern Georgia. It emphasizes Niko Marr’s significant contributions to the study of the most important monuments associated with the 10th-century hagiographic works. His journey to Shavsheti and Klarjeti in the summer of 1904 is of particular importance. The researcher aimed to thoroughly examine the activities of Grigol Khandzteli and his disciples, describe the locations of the local churches and monasteries, as well as other Georgian monastic sites and, most importantly, to trace the Khandzta and Shatberdi monasteries. Niko Marr's opinion is noteworthy, as he suggested that the unnamed monastery was likely situated around Porta, specifically in the southern area, close to Lower Porta and the Porta Gardens. On the other hand, Khandzta, which was relatively older, was presumed to be in the northern part of the village of Porta and was known then as the "Nuka Cathedral". Most researchers did not agree with Niko Marr's opinion. Nonetheless, the ideas presented by Marr were widely recognized, and they opened new avenues for further research and exploration. The participants of the 2014 expedition from Georgian Technical University claim that Grigol and Gabriel did not build the Khandzta Monastery near the Porta Gardens; rather, it was built near Upper Porta, approximately 4 kilometers away from Lower Porta. The study pays particular attention to the diaries of Niko Marr, which continue to hold value to this day. It is worth noting that Niko Marr acquired the text of Grigol Khandzteli in the fall of 1902 in Jerusalem, published it, and translated it into Russian with great skill. He also included the Diary of the Journey to Shavsheti and Klarjeti («Дневник поездки в Шавшию и Кларджию») in the publication. In his research, Niko Marr emphasizes that Merchule’s writings are rare in hagiographic literature for their realism. As a national writer, Giorgi Merchule was introduced to us by Niko Marr, who presented this remarkable author and thinker. The Diaries of the Shavshet-Klarjeti Trip is an excellent literary document filled with a patriotic spirit. With great affection, the researcher described the exemplary centers of ancient culture that once thrived and are now in ruins. Niko Marr was a unique phenomenon in the history of world science. He was an excellent philologist, linguist, dialectologist, expert in source studies, literary critic, folklorist, archaeologist, and researcher of philosophical issues. Niko Marr’s contributions to Oriental Studies, particularly in the historical examination of the relationship between Georgian and Eastern cultures, is profound; his impact is permanent and, objectively speaking, highly respected.
The Category of Definiteness and İndefiniteness in Turkish and Georgian (Contrastive Analysis)
Definiteness and indefiniteness are important semantic categories that manifest differently across languages. In languages that lack specific grammatical markers, such as articles, these concepts are conveyed through various morphological and lexical means. Turkish and Georgian, as is widely recognized, belong to different language families and have significantly different structures. However, neither language possesses articles. In both, the category of definiteness and indefiniteness is expressed implicitly. This paper examines the functional and semantic means of expressing definiteness and indefiniteness in Georgian and Turkish. It discusses the similarities and differences found between the two languages. This paper intends to compare the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness in two structurally different languages that lack articles. It seeks to identify the universal features commonly found in languages without articles, while also demonstrating the specific characteristics that emerge due to the unique nature of each language. Both Georgian and Turkish convey the semantics of definiteness and indefiniteness through demonstrative pronouns. Additionally, Turkish employs the accusative case and possessive suffixes as markers of definiteness, which are absent in Georgian. The indefinite category is expressed in both languages by the indefinite pronouns erti (Georgian) and bir (Turkish), meaning “one”. The expression of indefiniteness is significantly stronger in Turkish compared to Georgian. However, Georgian also employs other pronouns to convey indefiniteness, such as vinme (meaning "someone") and rame (meaning "something").
Semantics of definiteness and indefiniteness
The Poetry of Nuri Efendi Tavdgiridze – the Muhajir Georgian
As is well known, historical hardships and political climate in Georgia have driven a segment of the Georgian population to leave their homeland and seek new lives abroad. Even in exile, they managed to revive the Georgian artistic spirit, producing impactful works of Georgian prose and poetry. This paper focuses on the poetry of Nuri Efendi Tavdgiridze, a prominent Muhajir Georgian. The research intends to study, evaluate, and analyze his poems, while familiarizing readers with his literary legacy. Unfortunately, only a small portion of his poems has survived, while his diaries and folkloric-ethnographic notes were destroyed in a fire in his village. Nevertheless, the surviving materials offer a glimpse into his poetry, allowing us to identify its primary themes and subthemes. Several of his poems stand out for their distinctive modes of expression and content, positioning Nuri Efendi Tavdgiridze as the author of a remarkable poetic signature. The poems of Nuri Efendi Tavdgiridze are poignant fragments of pain and sorrow. He dedicated many of them to historical places and figures, and occasionally to love; however, most of his works reflect a painful epic of emotions stemming from exile and an overwhelming longing for his native land. His poems are episodes of his spiritual biography, offering profound insights into his inner world. They depict the movements of a muhajir soul—from the moments of anguish following his departure from the homeland to the final days of an elderly exile, his hair turned white. Although sorrow, grief, and pain were constant companions in his life— because, as he noted, “the native soil has a different taste”—the longing became unbearable. His message reaches the reader with immense emotion, yet without embellishments of intricate artistic devices. We believe that his poetry requires no such adornment, as the pain itself acts as its expressive essence. The paper focuses on the sorrowful and emotionally intense spiritual state of Nuri Efendi Tavdgiridze. Engaging with his poems allows us to conclude that his poetic insights should not be restricted to the domain of émigré poetry alone; instead, they deserve recognition and appreciation by his homeland and a wider readership. We may even suggest that several of his poems deserve a modest yet significant place in the history of Georgian poetry.
Philosophical Aspects of Georgian-Turkish Cultural Interactions
Georgian-Turkish cultural interactions encompass a broad and profound range of themes, integrating not only historical and political contexts but also the diverse connections established between the two cultures. These interactions have found expression in various intellectual traditions and spiritual legacies. Both cultures have placed strong emphasis on moral conduct and spiritual values, which have been shaped by fundamental socio-political, moral-ethical, and religious considerations. Viewed through a cultural studies perspective, these relations can be interpreted as a dialogue that is both socio-cultural and religious-philosophical, fostering a synergy of mutual understanding, harmony, unity, goodwill, and creative collaboration among people. Even though Georgian and Turkish general philosophical perspectives on the concept of time are fundamentally different, there are still areas where they intersect. For instance, Georgian philosophy pays special attention to the preservation of historical memory and the role and function of past life experiences in shaping the present, while Turkish philosophy primarily perceives time through the lens of the purposive actions—both individual and collective—directed from the present toward the future. Consequently, these differences have facilitated their cultural exchanges, allowing both sides to gain a richer understanding of one another’s cultural consciousness. Within the realms of Turkish and Georgian thought, we can identify several rich and fruitful periods that contribute to our understanding of their literary and philosophical heritage. Noteworthy figures from the medieval era include Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, Yunus Emre, and Haji Bektash Veli, alongside Georgian luminaries such as Ioane Petritsi, Ephrem Mtsire, and Shota Rustaveli. These individuals achieved significant acclaim, both in neighboring regions and far beyond, establishing themselves as prominent voices of the Eastern Renaissance, whose contributions to world culture are invaluable. Looking ahead to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, we find the creative endeavors of Turkish and Georgian thinkers equally compelling, particularly in terms of shared ideas and socio-political themes. This period saw the emergence of influential figures in cultural and public spheres of their respective nations including, Ziya Gökalp, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, and Bahâ Tevfik from Turkey, as well as Ilia Chavchavadze, Archil Jorjadze, Varlam Cherkezishvili, and Mikhako Tsereteli from Georgia.
Onomastics of Speri in Historical Sources and Georgian Historiography
The information preserved in Georgian historical sources concerning Speri is rather limited, which explains the relative scarcity of historiographical studies on the subject. Even so, Georgian scholars—among them Ivane Javakhishvili, Pavle Ingorokva, Ekvtime Takaishvili, and Simon Janashia—have offered insightful analyses and valuable observations regarding Speri. Far richer material, however, is preserved in foreign sources—ranging from the works of historians and geographers to the accounts of travelers. Since Speri was the earliest of the Chorokhi regions to come under Ottoman rule in 1514, and the assimilation of its inhabitants began soon afterward, resulting in the gradual disappearance of their ancestral language, folklore, and traditions—the significance of early historical sources becomes particularly evident when studying Speri. First and foremost, it is essential to determine: (a) who constituted the indigenous population of Speri and (b) which territories were encompassed within its historical boundaries? Addressing these issues requires the use of historical sources and onomastic data, with particular attention to the earliest layer of geographical names. In The Georgian Chronicles (Kartlis Tskhovreba), the term სპერი (Speri) appears with several meanings: – სპერი (Speri) as a country; – სპერი (Speri) as a city, corresponding to present-day ისპირი (Ispir); – სპერის მდინარე (The River of Speri), identified with the ჭოროხი (Chorokhi River); – სპერის ზღვა (The Sea of Speri), referring to the Black Sea, also known as the Pontic Sea. According to Vakhushti Bagrationi, in the 18th century, the people of Speri were ‘…entirely Muslim, Georgian in language, and Ottoman in customs.’ Pavle Ingorokva connects the etymology of Speri to the ethnonym იბერი (Iberi), suggesting the forms სპერი//*სბერი//ჰიბერი (Speri // Sberi // Hiberi.) (Likewise, S. Janashia regards სპერი (Speri) as a term shaped in a foreign linguistic milieu). It is noteworthy that, according to the researcher’s observation, ბასიანი (Basiani) (previously known as ფასიანი (Pasiani)) was part of the Speri region (სასპერეთი Saspereti), whose indigenous population comprised the ფასიანი (Fasiani) or ფასიანელნი (Fasianelni). Another name for the tribe residing in Basiani is ბოლხარი (Bolkhari (Bol-kh-ar’i)), also referred to as ბოლხი (Bolkhi) or ბოხაელნი (Bokhaelni). According to P. Ingorokva’s observations, Speri is divided into three parts: – Upper Speri – the headwaters of the Chorokhi and Baiburt; – Middle Speri – Gharti; – Lower Speri – the city of Speri, including Parkhali (?). The ancient geographical names of Speri are of Georgian origin: კარი (Kari, later Karsi), შქვიდისი (Shkvidisi), ღართა (Gharta), გაჩევანი (Gachevani), ხორტევანი (Khortevani), ზარიშტიანი (Zarishtiani (წინუბანი, Tsinubani), ვაშლოვანი (Vashlovani), ტირახთი (Tirakhti), კობლათი (Koblati), ორცორი (Ortsori (< *Orts’ori < Orts’veri), and მესოხორი (Mesokhori), among others. Onomastic evidence clearly indicates that Speri was historically a Georgian territory.
General Ilia Makarashvili's Records on the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877-1878
The records document the formation of the artillery brigade over the years 1864 to 1878. The handwritten diaries by Ilia Makarashvili, dated November 23, 1885, comprise 243 pages. The contents are indicated in the introductory part of the diary under the heading Materials for the Compilation of the History of the 39th Artillery Brigade, yet the scope of the text extends well beyond this stated purpose. The detailed notes address not only the brigade’s history but a range of related issues. The diaries describe military operations and offer a military-political analysis of the circumstances that led to them. Particularly interesting is the author’s assessment of the conflict between Russian and Ottoman Empires on Serbian soil. The diaries contain a letter from the Minister of War to the Russian Emperor outlining a general program of action, as well as a decree by the head of the main artillery division, specifying concrete operational plan. They describe the period of deployment of artillery units in various regions of Georgia—Svaneti, Kutaisi, and Akhaltsikhe, among others—and discuss participation in preparations for the military operation in the Erzurum direction. The diaries present Ilia Makarashvili’s observations on the modernization and rearmament of artillery equipment, along with his commentary on the emperor’s decree, and discussions on the movement and deployment of brigade batteries and the staffing of military units during both the pre-war and wartime periods. A list of officers who served with Ilia Makarashvili between 1892 and 1902 is also provided. The diaries further address the brigade’s internal regulations, issues of the divisional management, and provide an analysis of artillery weaponry. Furthermore, they include military-economic reports, tables, cost estimates, and barrack drawings—all of which testify to Ilia Makarashvili’s high level of military and engineering expertise. One entry in Ilia Makarashvili’s diary describes the orchard belonging to his wife, Nino, the daughter of Durmishkhan Zhuruli, in the village of Arbo (as of March 1911). The records of Lieutenant General Ilia Makarashvili, preserved in the Art Palace of Georgia - Museum of Cultural History, are kept in the form of a leather-bound notebook. The records, along with other documentary and photographic materials concerning the Zhuruli and Makarashvili families—both well known to the public—were donated to the museum by the late Merab Makarashvili, grandson of Ilia Makarashvili’s brother, to whom Ilia’s daughter, Irina Makarashvili, had bequeathed the ancestral palace and property in Arbo. We believe that the writings by a prominent military figure in the service of the Russian Empire contain a wealth of valuable information and constitute an important source for military historians.